Which of the following methods can be used to establish probable cause?

Establishing probable cause is fundamental in law enforcement, as it provides the legal basis for making arrests, conducting searches, and obtaining warrants. Direct observations allow officers to gather evidence firsthand, leading to reasonable belief that a crime has been, is being, or will be committed. When an officer directly witnesses suspicious behavior or a crime in progress, it bolsters the foundation for probable cause by relying on the officer's training and experience.

While prior arrest records and a defendant's confession can contribute to establishing probable cause in certain contexts, they generally are not as immediate or conclusive as direct observations. Prior arrest records may reflect a pattern of behavior but do not indicate a current offense, while a confession must be assessed for voluntariness and context. Additionally, any method involving flouting civil rights would not be permissible or appropriate in establishing probable cause, as it would violate the legal and ethical standards law enforcement is bound to uphold.